What is learning? long-term change in mental representations or associations as a result of experience
Ch.2 Learning and the Brain (3/10) Gil
Ch.3 Behaviorism and Classical Conditioning (3/31) Claire
Ormrod
Chapter 3: Behaviorist Views of Learning
Behaviorism and Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning is an example of Behaviorism-one way to explain how people develop involuntary responses to particular stimuli
I. Basic Assumption of Behaviorism:
Prior to 20th century there were 2 dominant perspectives in psychology:
Structuralism (Wilhelm Wundt)-primary means of investigating learning is Introspection-look inside your mind and describe your thoughts (too subjective and no scientific rigor)
Functionalism (John Dewey)
Thorndike and Pavlov began to study observable phenomena-looked primarily at behavior
Principles of learning should apply equally to different behaviors and to different species of animals
Eqipotentiality- humans and other animal learn in similar ways
Learning processes can be studied when the focus of study is on stimuli and responses. Objectivity remains when focus is on stimuli in the environment and responses that organisms make to those stimuli (S-R psychology)
Internal processes are largely excluded from scientific study.
Behaviorists believe that because we cannot directly observe and measure internal processes they should not be included in research.
Neobehaviorists believe that human and animal behavior is better understood when both cognitive processes and environmental events are considered.
Learning involves behavior change.
As awareness of cognitive factors of learning are studied psychologists suggest that behaviorist law are better applied to understanding what influences performance of learned behaviors rather than what influences learning itself.
Organisms are born as blank slates.
Human beings and animals (unless there are species-specific instincts or biologically based disabilities) are not born predisposed to behave in a certain way. Every organism has its own unique environmental experience which influences its unique behaviors.
Learning is largely the result of environmental events.
Conditioning-events occurring in an environment gradually control or influence the way organisms think or behave
Determinists (B. F. Skinner)-proposed that if we had complete knowledge of an organisms past influences, present environment and genetic predispositions we could then accurately predict the organisms’ next response
Contemporary behaviorists disagree with determinist theory-looking at response to stimuli can help us understand behavior, but not predict actions with total accuracy.
The most useful theories tend to be parsimonious-the explanation of all learned behaviors should be as concise as possible.
II. Classical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov’s experiment with the bell and the salivating dog is discussed here.
3 Steps of Pavlov’s experiment:
1. Neutral Stimulus (NS)-identification of a stimulus to no noticeable response occurs (ringing bell)
2. Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) - neutral stimulus (bell) presented followed by a stimulus (meat) that leads to a response. This Unconditioned Response (UCR) is unlearned and occurs automatically (salivation).
3. The formerly NS becomes a Conditioned Stimulus (CS) after being paired with a UCS because it now elicits a response (salivation). This response is now a conditioned response.
III. Classical Conditioning Model
Classical Conditioning:
Typically occurs when 2 stimuli are presented contiguously
Most likely to occur when a conditioned stimulus is presented just before the unconditioned stimulus
Also know as signal learning (the 1st stimulus signals that the unconditioned stimulus is next)
Usually involves learning of involuntary response (uncontrolled response)
IV. Classical Conditioning in Human Learning
This section deals with attitudes and phobias associated with conditioning:
Food aversions related to a bad experience while eating them
Fears and phobias related to a unpleasant experience
Fear of failure related to punishment or ridicule
V. Common Phenomena in Classical Conditioning
Associative Bias-associations between certain stimuli are more likely to occur than between others (food and nausea rather than a flash of light and nausea)
Importance of Contingency- the essential condition; the conditioned stimulus must occur when the unconditioned stimulus will likely follow
Extinction-the disappearance of a conditioned response (salivation) can occur when a conditioned stimulus (bell) is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus (meat)
Spontaneous Recovery-the recurrence of a conditioned response after a period of rest, however, it is generally a weaker response
Generalization-learners respond to other similar stimuli the same way they responded to the initial stimulus
Stimulus Discrimination-occurs when one stimulus is presented along with an unconditioned stimulus and a second stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus. There is a conditioned response to the conditioned stimulus, but it is not generalized (ex. Child abused by father while also having positive interactions with other adult males will probably not generalize her fear of her father to the other men).
Higher-Order Conditioning (second order conditioning)-see example page 42
Sensory Preconditioning-two neutral stimuli are presented at the same time; one neutral stimulus is associated with an unconditioned stimulus and becomes a conditioned stimulus eliciting a conditioned response. The second neutral stimulus also elicits the contained response because of its prior link to the conditioned stimulus. (Ex. 1.School/test (no response), 2. School/traumatic event (anxiety), 3. School (anxiety); 4. tests (anxiety)
VI. Changing Undesirable Conditioned Responses
Conditioned responses are hard to eliminate because they are involuntary. Two ways to get rid of undesirable conditioned responses are Extinction and Counter conditioning.
Extinction: presenting a conditioned response without the unconditioned stimulus will eliminate the CS; undependable method because extinction speed is unpredictable, there is a tendency to avoid what we fear, extinguished response may reoccur through spontaneous recovery.
Counter conditioning More Desirable responses: one conditioned response is replaced with a new, more productive one. More effective than extinction.
Systematic Desensitization-means for decreasing or elimination many conditioned anxiety responses.
VII. Educational Implications of Behaviorist Assumptions and Classical Conditioning
Practice is important-people are more likely to learn when they have a chance to practice
Learning should take place in a positive environment associated with a positive emotions
To break a bad habit the stimulus-response connection must be replaced
Exhaustion Method: performing the bad habit until too tired to continue
Threshold Method: present stimulus faintly so it is not responded to and then gradually increase the intensity of the stimulus, but so gradually that it is still not responded to
Incompatibility Method: presentation of stimulus when the habitual response cannot occur, but an opposite response will occur
Assessing learning involves looking for behavior changes: never assume that learning is occurring unless there is a change in student behavior observed in relation to instruction
Ch.4 Instructional Conditioning (3/31) Claire
Ormrod
Chapter 4: Instrumental Conditioning (behaving in ways that bring desired consequences or avoid negative consequences)
I. Thorndike’s Early Research
Connectionism-experience can strengthen or weaken stimulus-response connections
Law of Effect-responses followed by positivity are strengthened; those followed by negativity are weakened
II. Rewards and Reinforcement
Skinner’s Operant Conditioning-a reinforced response is strengthened and more likely to reoccur
A reinforcer is a stimulus or event that increases the frequency of a response it follows.
Reinforcement is the act of following a response with a reinforcer.
A transitional generality-the use of reinforcement to increase many different behaviors in many different situations
A. Important Conditions for Operant Conditioning
Reinforcement must follow response
Reinforcement must be immediate
Reinforcement must be dependent upon response
B. Contrasting Operant Conditioning with Classical Conditioning-operant conditioning is learning through positive or negative reinforcement of a behavior; classical conditioning creates a response to a stimulus pairing it repeatedly with a stimulus
The Various Forms That Reinforcement Can Take
A. Primary versus Secondary Reinforcers
Primary reinforce-one that occurs naturally; does not have to be learned to be reinforcing (food, water, oxygen, warmth, etc.)
Secondary Reinforcer-conditioned reinforcer
B. Positive Reinforcement-involves presenting of stimulus after response; extrinsic reinforcers come from without rather than within
Material reinforces-tangible; an actual object
Social reinforcer-a gesture or sign
Activity reinforcer-engagement in a preferred activity (Premack principle-people will often perform one task if it allows them to engage in a preferred activity)
Positive feedback-
Intrinsic reinforcers-engagement in a behavior because it makes one feel good inside
C. Negative Reinforcement-increases a response through the removal of a stimulus (taking the keys out of the ignition to keep the car from making a beeping sound)
III. Punishment -decreases frequency of an unwanted response by presentation of an aversive stimulus (bad grade) or removal of a stimulus (loss of privilege)
Effective Forms of Punishment
Verbal reprimand
Restitution and Overcorrection
Restitution overcorrection-person punished must make things better
Positive practice overcorrection-person repeats action correctly and maybe in an over exaggerated way
Time-out
In-house suspension
Response Cost
Ineffective Forms of Punishment
Physical Punishment-illegal in most places
Psychological Punishment-threatens self-esteem
Extra Classwork
Out-of-School suspension
Missing recess
IV. Common Phenomena in Instrumental Conditioning
Superstitious Behavior-occurs when reinforcement is random
Shaping-“a process of reinforcing successively closer and closer approximations to the desired behavior until that behavior is exhibited”
Chaining-teaching a sequence of responses by reinforcing the first response, then two responses, then three and so on
Extinction-decreasing the frequency of a response by no longer reinforcing it
Effects of Reinforcement Schedules (continuous reinforcement and intermittent reinforcement)
Ratio Schedules (reinforcement occurs after a desired number of responses are given)
Fixed Ratio-reinforcement occurs after a constant number of responses have been given
Variable Ratio-the reinforcement occurs after a particular, yet changing number of responses are given
2. Interval Schedules-reinforcement depends on the first response given after a certain amount of time has passed
Fixed Interval-reinforcement depends on first response after a constant amount of time has passed
Variable Interval-the length of response interval changes after each response and reinforcement
3. Differential Schedules: Reinforcing Rates of Responding
Differential rate of high responding (DRH) -provides reinforcement after a specific number of large responses occur within a certain amount of time
Differential rate of low responding (DRL)-reinforcement of first response after an amount of time has passed where there has been no response (flooded car-must wait to try again)
Avoidance Learning-learning to stay away from a stimulus that causes pain, anxiety, or frustration
Pre-aversive stimulus-cues the unpleasant event
Active Avoidance learning-making a particular response to avoid an aversive event
Passive Avoidance Learning-not making a particular response allows avoidance of an aversive event
V. Effects of Antecedent Stimuli and Responses in Instrumental Conditioning (antecedent stimuli and antecedent responses set stage for behaviors that may or may not follow)
Cueing-nonverbal signals that remind students of desired response (prompting)
Discriminative stimulus
Stimulus Control
Setting Events-environmental conditions under which some behaviors are likely to happen
Generalization-carry over of a learned behavior into a similar situation
Stimulus Discrimination-learning that a conditioned response made after one stimulus should not be made in another situation
Behavioral Momentum-
VI. Cognition and Motivation in Instrumental Conditioning
Contrast effects
Elation effect-increase in amount of reinforcement increases rate of response
Depression effect-response rate is slower when amount of reinforcement is decreased
Ch.5 Applications of Instrumental Conditioning (3/31 Trina) (3/31 Bryan
Applying behaviorist principles to the classroom Theory is about how western educators are primarily responsible for teaching subjects that are for future use and do not apply o the students’ present life—reinforcers are superficial and not “natural” and often not offered until much too late. Punishment for misbehavior takes the place of reinforcers and then actually becomes reinforcing because it allows escape or avoid classroom tasks.
MANAGEMENT
1. Concerns about using reinforcement and punishment in the classroom. These concerns or “complaints” stem from misunderstanding or misapplying techniques properly
Concerns or “Bogus Complaints” are as follows:
a. a criticism of behaviorist approaches is that reinforcers are bribes
b. reinforcement leads to dependence on external rewards for positive behaviors.
c. reinforcing on student will encourage others to be “bad”
d. punishment reduces self-esteem
e. Eliminating a problem behavior does not eliminate underlying cause of the behavior
There are some genuine concerns, however, if this approach does not work, there may be underlying cognitive deficits that need to be addressed. Punished behavior may be merely suppressed and return over time. Rewards given for behavior that is already intrinsically motivating may increase the learner’s enjoyment after the reward is removed.
2. Using reinforcement to increase desirable behaviors—
Specify desired behaviors upfront—explain the end result (terminal behavior) or behavior to the class and the benefits.
Use extrinsic reinforcers only when desired behaviors are not already occurring on their own, it is not necessary to reward every positive action and extrinsic reinforcers may lose effectiveness if used too much
Identify consequences that are truly reinforcing for each student—what works for one or even many, does not work for all
Make sure that students will gain more than they lose from changing their behavior. Consciously or unconsciously learners may weigh out the costs of choosing a consequence i.e. the consequence of earning an ‘A’ and the cost (lots of study) may not be enough to get the student to buy in.
Make response-consequence contingencies explicit. Let students know what they’re working toward. “if_, then will occur.
Consistent reinforcement
Gradually shape complex behaviors—break down expectations into manageable parts.
If you give reinforcement publicly make sure all students have opportunity to earn it.
Use objective criteria to monitor progress—essential to establish frequency of behavior in order to determine the success of reinforcement
Foster the ability to delay gratification
Once desired behavior is achieved, wean learners from reinforcers
3. Strategies for decreasing undesirable behaviors
Extinguish responses—extinction-making sure that an undesirable behavior is not inadvertently reinforced. Extinction is not always a dependable way of eliminating unwanted behavior. Some behavior may be dangerous and can’t be ignored, sometimes the behavior may even become worse, before it improves, and sometimes it is hard to identify the reinforcer for the behavior.
Presenting noncontingent reinforcement may increase undesired behavior i.e. breaks from difficult tasks.
Reinforcing other behaviors—if you identify one behavior that you choose not to reinforce, you may inadvertently reinforce other negative behavior
Using punishment—punishment is often used as a means of behavior control because it can eliminate undesirable behavior quickly at least temporarily
Choosing a punishment-should be punishing without being overly severe. What works for one does not necessarily work for another. Being sent to one’s room may work for some and be reinforcing to another.
Inform learners ahead of time about what behaviors will be punished
Describe unacceptable behaviors in clear concrete ways
When possible, punish immediately after the behavior
Administer punishment with the context of a generally warm supportive climate
Explain why the behavior is unacceptable
Be consistent in use of punishment
Modify environment so that misbehavior is less likely to occur
Teach and reinforce more appropriate behaviors
Applied Behavior Analysis
1. Components of applied behavior analysis
Behaviors that are the focus of intervention are identified in observable measurable terms.
Behavior is measured both before and during the intervention
Environmental conditions that may be encourage problems behaviors are identified i.e. ABC=antecedentàbehavioràConsequence
Specific intervention or treatment plan is developed and implemented
Treatment is monitored for effectiveness; modified if necessary
Measures taken to promote generalization of newly acquired behaviors
Treatment is phased out after the desired behavior is acquired
2. Using applied behavior analysis with large groups
Group contingency—entire group must perform a desired behavior in order for the reinforcement to occur
Token economy—immediate reinforces given to individual when they complete desired behavior, token is then later traded for a backup reinforcer i.e. an object or activity of individual’s choice
3. Adding a cognitive component to ABA (applied behavioral analysis)
Teacher or therapist may model the desired behavior
Coaching—verbal instructions towards the goal
4. Effectiveness of ABA
We know it works, just don’t always know why
Works with students that need continual motivation
Instructional Objectives 1. Behavioral objectives
Speaks to desired academic behaviors
Behaviors are observable and measurable
Behaviors are conditional i.e. given a certain circumstance, environment etc.
Criterion for measurement
2. Current perspectives on instructional objectives
Focus on lower level skills
3. Usefulness and effectiveness of objectives
Teachers have drifted away from identifying specific behavioral objectives instead using more general instructional objectives perhaps labeled as goals, outcomes, standards etc.
4. Formulating different levels of objectives
Use a variety of different established taxonomies i.e. Blooms Taxonomy to measure different levels of educational objectives
Programmed instruction (PI) and computer assisted instruction (CAI)
PI is programmed instruction and was developed by B.F. Skinner in 1954—involved a “teaching machine”. It consisted of a box that enclosed a long roll of printed material. Students could advance role past a window display that had incremental bits of information aligned systematically, later it took the form of programmed textbooks and later software. Learner would respond to information, after correct response would be reinforced and directed to next bit of information to be learned and so forth.
CAI is computer-assisted instruction. Branched not linear so can respond to any type of student response and not limited to words because of graphic capabilities.
Effective of PI and CAI—Studies on PI indicate little if any advantage over traditional instructional methods. CAI can lead to greater academic achievement and improved attitudes toward schoolwork when compared to traditional instructional methods. But improvement all round was not great. Of either is used, should be used with effective behaviorist principles
Mastery Learning
Based in part on concept of shaping. Student masters one-step and then moves to the next small, but more advanced step.
Keller’s personalized system of instruction (PSI) –for college instruction. In addition to the discrete unite, logical sequence, self-pacing and frequent measure of mastery PSI includes:
-Emphasis on individual study
-Unit exams
-Supplementary instructional techniques
-Use of proctors
Effectiveness of mastery learning and PSI – techniques not without problems. Good points are that motivated students will learn at their own pace, not procrastinate as much, studies indicate that students retain information better. In classes where you have to keep the kids together (for logistical reasons) the faster learning students are not able to move on as quickly and may learn less than their ability. A lot of management issues with larger classes.
When behaviorist techniques are most appropriate
Behaviorist approaches are most likely more appropriate for some groups than others. Students who have had very little academic success may benefit from behaviorist techniques. Additionally, students who have been identified as having “developmental delays” or “learning disabilities” may also fall into this category. A regular pattern of successes may be what the students need to bolster low self-confidence etc.
Students with low motivation may also benefit from these techniques.
Students with chronically high levels of anxiety
These techniques are often the only ones that will work with some very difficult students.
Summary
Well-planned, systematic use of reinforcement can be highly effective in improving classroom behavior.
Inappropriate behavior can often be reduced through extinction, noncontingent reinforcement, reinforcement of other behaviors or punishment.
ABA involves the application of behaviorist principles to address chronic, serious behavior problems.
Instructional objectives are a direct outgrowth of the behaviorist concept of terminal behavior
Programmed instruction, computer assisted instruction and mastery learning incorporate behaviorist principles like responding, shaping and immediate reinforcement.
Ch.6 Social Cognitive Theory (3/17) Brett
Social Cognitive Theory- blending of behaviorist theory (reinforcement and punishment) and cognitive theory (awareness and expectations)
Modeling - behaviors, beliefs, and attitudes acquired through modeling
- 4 thing necessary for modeling - attention, retention, motor reproduction, and motivation
Those with high self - efficacy (those with beliefs that they can perform successfully) more likely to choose challenging activities
self - efficacy can be enhanced from encouraging messages, peer success, and one's own successes
Social Cognitive theorists = although environment influences behavior, over time individuals regulate their own behavior
Effective Modeling - 4 conditions must be met
1) attention - needs to be on the model and the significant parts of the modeled behavior
2) retention - remembering the behavior that was observed, rehearsal can be effective for retention (repeating over and over)
3) motor reproduction - replication of the behavior that a model demonstrated, more effective if opportunity to reproduce is during observation
4) motivation - learner must want to demonstrate what they have learned
Factors in development of Self-Efficacy
1) previous successes
2) messages from others
3) successes and failures of others
4) successes and failures of the group as a whole
Elements of Self-Regulation
1) setting standards and goals
2) self-observation
3) self-evaluation
4) self-reaction
Ch.7 Intro to Cognition and Memory (3/24) Brett
- Educational Implications of Cognitive Theories
-- People control their own learning. (Skinner, and subsequent cognitivists argued that student must be active learners)
-- Memory is selective. (students are bombarded with more information than can be processed, so must select info and exclude other info, but are not always good judges of which is more important)
-- Attention is essential for learning. -----strategies for holding students' attention:
1. include variety in topics and presentation styles
2. provide frequent breaks, especially with younger children
3. ask questions
4. minimize distractions when independent work is assigned
5. seat students near the teacher if they have difficulty staying on task
-- people can process only a limited amount of information at a time
Ch.8 Long Term Memory I: Storage (3/24) Brett
Processes involved in long term storage
- selection - determining what information we should process further, and what is irrelevant to our needs
- rehearsal - repeating something over and over in a rote fashion, effectiveness is questionable
- meaningful learning - connecting new material with similar ideas already stored in memory; making sense of material
- internal organization - integration of pieces of new information into a cohesive, interrelated whole
- elaboration - imposing one's previous knowledge and beliefs on new information
- visual imagery - encoding information in a mental picture that captures its physical appearance to some extent
long-term memory storage is idiosyncratic; different people store information from the same situation in different ways and store different information, based on the individuals' backgrounds and ways they take in and store information
storage of new information sometimes affects previously learned information as well; learners sometimes distort new information based on existing beliefs, and sometimes the new information helps learners recognize that their earlier information is inaccurate
the way in which people store new information affects both the nature of the knowledge they process, and the ease with which they can retrieve it
Ch.9 Long Term Memory II: Nature of Knowledge (3/24) Brett
Declarative Knowledge - knowledge about "how things are or were" Procedural Knowledge - knowledge about "how to do things", awareness of the conditions under which various actions are called for
Conceptual Knowledge - when learners integrate declarative with procedural knowledge to address why questions, when learners understand why it makes sense to engage in certain procedures on certain occasions
some knowledge is explicit (conscious awareness of it), and other is implicit (hidden from conscious view)
Concepts - classes of objects or events that share one or more common properties
Schema - is a closely connected set of ideas related to a specific object or event; they often influence how we process, store, and remember new situations; they allow us to fill in missing information using our knowledge about how the world typically operates
Personal Theories - coherent belief systems that encompass cause-effect relationships about physical, biological, social, political, or mental phenomena
----personal theories are not always accurate reflections of the world, they may include incomplete or inaccurate understandings
Worldviews - encompass people's general beliefs and assumptions about reality, about "how things are and should be", and influence understandings of a wide variety of phenomena; more likely to reflect implicit rather than explicit knowledge; can still impact how people interpret everyday events and classroom subject matter
If students are starting from scratch about a new topic, helping them develop an accurate understanding about topic is relatively easy.
If students need to replace misconceptions with more accurate explanations, they must undergo conceptual change, the teacher's task is more challenging.
Expertise - of a particular subject area involves acquiring an increasing amount of knowledge, making numerous interconnections within that knowledge base, and eventually integrating what has been learned into a cohesive whole.
Ch.10 Long Term Memory III: Retrieval and Forgetting (3/24) Brett
Retrieval is easier when
1.) it has been stored in connection with many other ideas in memory
2.) is has previously been learned to automaticity
3.) relevant retrieval cues are present
interconnections between 1,2,3 will increase the probability that information will be activated when sought
Retrieval is often a constructive process
- some information is directly retrieved, while other details are filled in to create a logical cohesive recollection
- recall of information can be affected by information or misinformation presented at a later time
- people can "remember" things that never happened due to drawing inferences from what they have learned, or related ideas in long-term memory were activated during an experience
Variety of explanations as to why people "forget" things
1.) decay
2.) interference
3.) failure to retrieve
4.) repression
5.) construction error
6.) failure to completely store or consolidate information
Infantile Amnesia - remembering little to nothing about what happens during first few years of life
Forgetting is not a bad thing - we have little need to remember everything about every day of our lives, and we rarely need to remember important information word for word
Ch.11 Developmental Perspectives on Cognition (3/17) Brett
Constructivism = Piaget - 4 stages of development
1) Sensorimotor Stage (birth to ~2yrs) - schemes (groups of things that children can do) entail perceptions and behaviors, understanding of world based on physical interactions with it
2) Preoperational Stage (2yrs - 6 or 7 yrs) schemes contain symbolic quality (thinking about things beyond immediate experience), reasoning about events
3) Concrete Operations Stage (6 or 7 - 11 or 12yrs) ability to reason in logical ways about concrete, real situations; realization that their own perspectives not necessarily shared by others
4) Formal Operations Stage (11 or 12 - adulthood) thinking about abstract situations and hypothetical ones; advanced reasoning in math and science
stages of development may differ from culture to culture based on necessity
=Ch.12 Meta cognition, Self-Regulated Learning, and Study Strategies(4/7) CindyPeople's knowledge of their own learning and cognitive processes, as well as their regulation of those processes to enhance learning and memory, are collectively known as metacognition. Metacognitive Knowledge and Skills - Thinking about thinking
Being aware of ones own learning and memory capabilities are and of what learning tasks can realistically be accomplished.
Knowing which learning strategies are effective and which are not
Planning an approach to a learning task that is likely to be successful
Using effective learning strategies
Monitoring one's present knowledge
Knowing effective strategies for retrieval of previously stored information
The process of Metacognition is consistent with social cognitive theorists' notion of selfregulation: It provides the mechanism through which people begin to regulate ones aspect of their lives- their own learning.
Self-Regulated Learning
Social Cognitive theorists and cognitivists alike have begun to portray effective learning in a similar manner- as a process of setting goals, choosing learning strategies that are likely to help one achieve those goals, and then evaluating the results of one's efforts
Goal Setting - Identifying one or more desired end results for a learning activity
Planning - Determining how best to use the time available for a learning task.
Self-motivation - maintaining motivation to complete a learning task. Self-regulated learners are likely to have high self -efficacy regarding their ability to accomplish a learning task - putting work before pleasure.
Attention control- Focusing attention on the subject matter at hand- clear mind of possible distractions
Application of learning strategies - Self-regulated learners have a wide variety of learning strategies at their disposal, and they use different ones depending on the specific goal they want to accomplish.
Self- Monitoring - Checking periodically to see whether progress is being made toward the goal.
Appropriate help-seeking: Seeking assistance that might facilitate learning.
Self-Evaluation- Assessing the final outcome of one's efforts - Is it sufficient for the goals set for ones self.
Self Reflection - Determining the extent to which one's learning strategies have been successful and efficient, and possibly identifying alternatives that may be more effective in the future.
Ch.13 Transfer and Problem Solving (4/7) Cindy
Ch.14 Social Processes in Knowledge Construction (4/7) Cindy
Ch.15 Motivation and Affect (4/14) Cindy
Ch.16 Cognitive Factors in Motivation (4/14)_Cindy
Ch.1 Intro to Human Learning (4/7) Gil
What is learning? long-term change in mental representations or associations as a result of experienceCh.2 Learning and the Brain (3/10) Gil
Ch.3 Behaviorism and Classical Conditioning (3/31) Claire
Ormrod
Chapter 3: Behaviorist Views of Learning
Behaviorism and Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning is an example of Behaviorism-one way to explain how people develop involuntary responses to particular stimuli
I. Basic Assumption of Behaviorism:
Prior to 20th century there were 2 dominant perspectives in psychology:
Structuralism (Wilhelm Wundt)-primary means of investigating learning is Introspection-look inside your mind and describe your thoughts (too subjective and no scientific rigor)
Functionalism (John Dewey)
Thorndike and Pavlov began to study observable phenomena-looked primarily at behavior
Principles of learning should apply equally to different behaviors and to different species of animals
Eqipotentiality- humans and other animal learn in similar ways
Learning processes can be studied when the focus of study is on stimuli and responses. Objectivity remains when focus is on stimuli in the environment and responses that organisms make to those stimuli (S-R psychology)
Internal processes are largely excluded from scientific study.
Behaviorists believe that because we cannot directly observe and measure internal processes they should not be included in research.
Neobehaviorists believe that human and animal behavior is better understood when both cognitive processes and environmental events are considered.
Learning involves behavior change.
As awareness of cognitive factors of learning are studied psychologists suggest that behaviorist law are better applied to understanding what influences performance of learned behaviors rather than what influences learning itself.
Organisms are born as blank slates.
Human beings and animals (unless there are species-specific instincts or biologically based disabilities) are not born predisposed to behave in a certain way. Every organism has its own unique environmental experience which influences its unique behaviors.
Learning is largely the result of environmental events.
Conditioning-events occurring in an environment gradually control or influence the way organisms think or behave
Determinists (B. F. Skinner)-proposed that if we had complete knowledge of an organisms past influences, present environment and genetic predispositions we could then accurately predict the organisms’ next response
Contemporary behaviorists disagree with determinist theory-looking at response to stimuli can help us understand behavior, but not predict actions with total accuracy.
The most useful theories tend to be parsimonious-the explanation of all learned behaviors should be as concise as possible.
II. Classical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov’s experiment with the bell and the salivating dog is discussed here.
3 Steps of Pavlov’s experiment:
1. Neutral Stimulus (NS)-identification of a stimulus to no noticeable response occurs (ringing bell)
2. Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) - neutral stimulus (bell) presented followed by a stimulus (meat) that leads to a response. This Unconditioned Response (UCR) is unlearned and occurs automatically (salivation).
3. The formerly NS becomes a Conditioned Stimulus (CS) after being paired with a UCS because it now elicits a response (salivation). This response is now a conditioned response.
III. Classical Conditioning Model
Classical Conditioning:
Typically occurs when 2 stimuli are presented contiguously
Most likely to occur when a conditioned stimulus is presented just before the unconditioned stimulus
Also know as signal learning (the 1st stimulus signals that the unconditioned stimulus is next)
Usually involves learning of involuntary response (uncontrolled response)
IV. Classical Conditioning in Human Learning
This section deals with attitudes and phobias associated with conditioning:
Food aversions related to a bad experience while eating them
Fears and phobias related to a unpleasant experience
Fear of failure related to punishment or ridicule
V. Common Phenomena in Classical Conditioning
Associative Bias-associations between certain stimuli are more likely to occur than between others (food and nausea rather than a flash of light and nausea)
Importance of Contingency- the essential condition; the conditioned stimulus must occur when the unconditioned stimulus will likely follow
Extinction-the disappearance of a conditioned response (salivation) can occur when a conditioned stimulus (bell) is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus (meat)
Spontaneous Recovery-the recurrence of a conditioned response after a period of rest, however, it is generally a weaker response
Generalization-learners respond to other similar stimuli the same way they responded to the initial stimulus
Stimulus Discrimination-occurs when one stimulus is presented along with an unconditioned stimulus and a second stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus. There is a conditioned response to the conditioned stimulus, but it is not generalized (ex. Child abused by father while also having positive interactions with other adult males will probably not generalize her fear of her father to the other men).
Higher-Order Conditioning (second order conditioning)-see example page 42
Sensory Preconditioning-two neutral stimuli are presented at the same time; one neutral stimulus is associated with an unconditioned stimulus and becomes a conditioned stimulus eliciting a conditioned response. The second neutral stimulus also elicits the contained response because of its prior link to the conditioned stimulus. (Ex. 1.School/test (no response), 2. School/traumatic event (anxiety), 3. School (anxiety); 4. tests (anxiety)
VI. Changing Undesirable Conditioned Responses
Conditioned responses are hard to eliminate because they are involuntary. Two ways to get rid of undesirable conditioned responses are Extinction and Counter conditioning.
Extinction: presenting a conditioned response without the unconditioned stimulus will eliminate the CS; undependable method because extinction speed is unpredictable, there is a tendency to avoid what we fear, extinguished response may reoccur through spontaneous recovery.
Counter conditioning More Desirable responses: one conditioned response is replaced with a new, more productive one. More effective than extinction.
Systematic Desensitization-means for decreasing or elimination many conditioned anxiety responses.
VII. Educational Implications of Behaviorist Assumptions and Classical Conditioning
Practice is important-people are more likely to learn when they have a chance to practice
Learning should take place in a positive environment associated with a positive emotions
To break a bad habit the stimulus-response connection must be replaced
Exhaustion Method: performing the bad habit until too tired to continue
Threshold Method: present stimulus faintly so it is not responded to and then gradually increase the intensity of the stimulus, but so gradually that it is still not responded to
Incompatibility Method: presentation of stimulus when the habitual response cannot occur, but an opposite response will occur
Assessing learning involves looking for behavior changes: never assume that learning is occurring unless there is a change in student behavior observed in relation to instruction
Ch.4 Instructional Conditioning (3/31) Claire
OrmrodChapter 4: Instrumental Conditioning (behaving in ways that bring desired consequences or avoid negative consequences)
I. Thorndike’s Early Research
Connectionism-experience can strengthen or weaken stimulus-response connections
Law of Effect-responses followed by positivity are strengthened; those followed by negativity are weakened
II. Rewards and Reinforcement
Skinner’s Operant Conditioning-a reinforced response is strengthened and more likely to reoccur
A reinforcer is a stimulus or event that increases the frequency of a response it follows.
Reinforcement is the act of following a response with a reinforcer.
A transitional generality-the use of reinforcement to increase many different behaviors in many different situations
A. Important Conditions for Operant Conditioning
Reinforcement must follow response
Reinforcement must be immediate
Reinforcement must be dependent upon response
B. Contrasting Operant Conditioning with Classical Conditioning-operant conditioning is learning through positive or negative reinforcement of a behavior; classical conditioning creates a response to a stimulus pairing it repeatedly with a stimulus
The Various Forms That Reinforcement Can Take
A. Primary versus Secondary Reinforcers
Primary reinforce-one that occurs naturally; does not have to be learned to be reinforcing (food, water, oxygen, warmth, etc.)
Secondary Reinforcer-conditioned reinforcer
B. Positive Reinforcement-involves presenting of stimulus after response; extrinsic reinforcers come from without rather than within
Material reinforces-tangible; an actual object
Social reinforcer-a gesture or sign
Activity reinforcer-engagement in a preferred activity (Premack principle-people will often perform one task if it allows them to engage in a preferred activity)
Positive feedback-
Intrinsic reinforcers-engagement in a behavior because it makes one feel good inside
C. Negative Reinforcement-increases a response through the removal of a stimulus (taking the keys out of the ignition to keep the car from making a beeping sound)
III. Punishment -decreases frequency of an unwanted response by presentation of an aversive stimulus (bad grade) or removal of a stimulus (loss of privilege)
Effective Forms of Punishment
Verbal reprimand
Restitution and Overcorrection
Restitution overcorrection-person punished must make things better
Positive practice overcorrection-person repeats action correctly and maybe in an over exaggerated way
Time-out
In-house suspension
Response Cost
Ineffective Forms of Punishment
Physical Punishment-illegal in most places
Psychological Punishment-threatens self-esteem
Extra Classwork
Out-of-School suspension
Missing recess
IV. Common Phenomena in Instrumental Conditioning
Superstitious Behavior-occurs when reinforcement is random
Shaping-“a process of reinforcing successively closer and closer approximations to the desired behavior until that behavior is exhibited”
Chaining-teaching a sequence of responses by reinforcing the first response, then two responses, then three and so on
Extinction-decreasing the frequency of a response by no longer reinforcing it
Effects of Reinforcement Schedules (continuous reinforcement and intermittent reinforcement)
Ratio Schedules (reinforcement occurs after a desired number of responses are given)
Fixed Ratio-reinforcement occurs after a constant number of responses have been given
Variable Ratio-the reinforcement occurs after a particular, yet changing number of responses are given
2. Interval Schedules-reinforcement depends on the first response given after a certain amount of time has passed
Fixed Interval-reinforcement depends on first response after a constant amount of time has passed
Variable Interval-the length of response interval changes after each response and reinforcement
3. Differential Schedules: Reinforcing Rates of Responding
Differential rate of high responding (DRH) -provides reinforcement after a specific number of large responses occur within a certain amount of time
Differential rate of low responding (DRL)-reinforcement of first response after an amount of time has passed where there has been no response (flooded car-must wait to try again)
Avoidance Learning-learning to stay away from a stimulus that causes pain, anxiety, or frustration
Pre-aversive stimulus-cues the unpleasant event
Active Avoidance learning-making a particular response to avoid an aversive event
Passive Avoidance Learning-not making a particular response allows avoidance of an aversive event
V. Effects of Antecedent Stimuli and Responses in Instrumental Conditioning (antecedent stimuli and antecedent responses set stage for behaviors that may or may not follow)
Cueing-nonverbal signals that remind students of desired response (prompting)
Discriminative stimulus
Stimulus Control
Setting Events-environmental conditions under which some behaviors are likely to happen
Generalization-carry over of a learned behavior into a similar situation
Stimulus Discrimination-learning that a conditioned response made after one stimulus should not be made in another situation
Behavioral Momentum-
VI. Cognition and Motivation in Instrumental Conditioning
Contrast effects
Elation effect-increase in amount of reinforcement increases rate of response
Depression effect-response rate is slower when amount of reinforcement is decreased
Ch.5 Applications of Instrumental Conditioning (3/31 Trina) (3/31 Bryan
Applying behaviorist principles to the classroom
Theory is about how western educators are primarily responsible for teaching subjects that are for future use and do not apply o the students’ present life—reinforcers are superficial and not “natural” and often not offered until much too late. Punishment for misbehavior takes the place of reinforcers and then actually becomes reinforcing because it allows escape or avoid classroom tasks.
MANAGEMENT
1. Concerns about using reinforcement and punishment in the classroom. These concerns or “complaints” stem from misunderstanding or misapplying techniques properly
Concerns or “Bogus Complaints” are as follows:
a. a criticism of behaviorist approaches is that reinforcers are bribes
b. reinforcement leads to dependence on external rewards for positive behaviors.
c. reinforcing on student will encourage others to be “bad”
d. punishment reduces self-esteem
e. Eliminating a problem behavior does not eliminate underlying cause of the behavior
2. Using reinforcement to increase desirable behaviors—
3. Strategies for decreasing undesirable behaviors
Applied Behavior Analysis
1. Components of applied behavior analysis
2. Using applied behavior analysis with large groups
3. Adding a cognitive component to ABA (applied behavioral analysis)
4. Effectiveness of ABA
Instructional Objectives
1. Behavioral objectives
- Speaks to desired academic behaviors
- Behaviors are observable and measurable
- Behaviors are conditional i.e. given a certain circumstance, environment etc.
- Criterion for measurement
2. Current perspectives on instructional objectives- Focus on lower level skills
3. Usefulness and effectiveness of objectives- Teachers have drifted away from identifying specific behavioral objectives instead using more general instructional objectives perhaps labeled as goals, outcomes, standards etc.
4. Formulating different levels of objectives- Use a variety of different established taxonomies i.e. Blooms Taxonomy to measure different levels of educational objectives
- Programmed instruction (PI) and computer assisted instruction (CAI)
- PI is programmed instruction and was developed by B.F. Skinner in 1954—involved a “teaching machine”. It consisted of a box that enclosed a long roll of printed material. Students could advance role past a window display that had incremental bits of information aligned systematically, later it took the form of programmed textbooks and later software. Learner would respond to information, after correct response would be reinforced and directed to next bit of information to be learned and so forth.
- CAI is computer-assisted instruction. Branched not linear so can respond to any type of student response and not limited to words because of graphic capabilities.
- Effective of PI and CAI—Studies on PI indicate little if any advantage over traditional instructional methods. CAI can lead to greater academic achievement and improved attitudes toward schoolwork when compared to traditional instructional methods. But improvement all round was not great. Of either is used, should be used with effective behaviorist principles
- Mastery Learning
- Based in part on concept of shaping. Student masters one-step and then moves to the next small, but more advanced step.
- Keller’s personalized system of instruction (PSI) –for college instruction. In addition to the discrete unite, logical sequence, self-pacing and frequent measure of mastery PSI includes:
-Emphasis on individual study-Unit exams
-Supplementary instructional techniques
-Use of proctors
Ch.6 Social Cognitive Theory (3/17) Brett
Social Cognitive Theory- blending of behaviorist theory (reinforcement and punishment) and cognitive theory (awareness and expectations)
Modeling - behaviors, beliefs, and attitudes acquired through modeling
- 4 thing necessary for modeling - attention, retention, motor reproduction, and motivation
Those with high self - efficacy (those with beliefs that they can perform successfully) more likely to choose challenging activities
self - efficacy can be enhanced from encouraging messages, peer success, and one's own successes
Social Cognitive theorists = although environment influences behavior, over time individuals regulate their own behavior
Effective Modeling - 4 conditions must be met
1) attention - needs to be on the model and the significant parts of the modeled behavior
2) retention - remembering the behavior that was observed, rehearsal can be effective for retention (repeating over and over)
3) motor reproduction - replication of the behavior that a model demonstrated, more effective if opportunity to reproduce is during observation
4) motivation - learner must want to demonstrate what they have learned
Factors in development of Self-Efficacy
1) previous successes
2) messages from others
3) successes and failures of others
4) successes and failures of the group as a whole
Elements of Self-Regulation
1) setting standards and goals
2) self-observation
3) self-evaluation
4) self-reaction
Ch.7 Intro to Cognition and Memory (3/24) Brett
- Educational Implications of Cognitive Theories-- People control their own learning. (Skinner, and subsequent cognitivists argued that student must be active learners)
-- Memory is selective. (students are bombarded with more information than can be processed, so must select info and exclude other info, but are not always good judges of which is more important)
-- Attention is essential for learning.
-----strategies for holding students' attention:
1. include variety in topics and presentation styles
2. provide frequent breaks, especially with younger children
3. ask questions
4. minimize distractions when independent work is assigned
5. seat students near the teacher if they have difficulty staying on task
-- people can process only a limited amount of information at a time
Ch.8 Long Term Memory I: Storage (3/24) Brett
Processes involved in long term storage
- selection - determining what information we should process further, and what is irrelevant to our needs
- rehearsal - repeating something over and over in a rote fashion, effectiveness is questionable
- meaningful learning - connecting new material with similar ideas already stored in memory; making sense of material
- internal organization - integration of pieces of new information into a cohesive, interrelated whole
- elaboration - imposing one's previous knowledge and beliefs on new information
- visual imagery - encoding information in a mental picture that captures its physical appearance to some extent
long-term memory storage is idiosyncratic; different people store information from the same situation in different ways and store different information, based on the individuals' backgrounds and ways they take in and store information
storage of new information sometimes affects previously learned information as well; learners sometimes distort new information based on existing beliefs, and sometimes the new information helps learners recognize that their earlier information is inaccurate
the way in which people store new information affects both the nature of the knowledge they process, and the ease with which they can retrieve it
Ch.9 Long Term Memory II: Nature of Knowledge (3/24) Brett
Declarative Knowledge - knowledge about "how things are or were"
Procedural Knowledge - knowledge about "how to do things", awareness of the conditions under which various actions are called for
Conceptual Knowledge - when learners integrate declarative with procedural knowledge to address why questions, when learners understand why it makes sense to engage in certain procedures on certain occasions
some knowledge is explicit (conscious awareness of it), and other is implicit (hidden from conscious view)
Concepts - classes of objects or events that share one or more common properties
Schema - is a closely connected set of ideas related to a specific object or event; they often influence how we process, store, and remember new situations; they allow us to fill in missing information using our knowledge about how the world typically operates
Personal Theories - coherent belief systems that encompass cause-effect relationships about physical, biological, social, political, or mental phenomena
----personal theories are not always accurate reflections of the world, they may include incomplete or inaccurate understandings
Worldviews - encompass people's general beliefs and assumptions about reality, about "how things are and should be", and influence understandings of a wide variety of phenomena; more likely to reflect implicit rather than explicit knowledge; can still impact how people interpret everyday events and classroom subject matter
If students are starting from scratch about a new topic, helping them develop an accurate understanding about topic is relatively easy.
If students need to replace misconceptions with more accurate explanations, they must undergo conceptual change, the teacher's task is more challenging.
Expertise - of a particular subject area involves acquiring an increasing amount of knowledge, making numerous interconnections within that knowledge base, and eventually integrating what has been learned into a cohesive whole.
Ch.10 Long Term Memory III: Retrieval and Forgetting (3/24) Brett
Retrieval is easier when
1.) it has been stored in connection with many other ideas in memory
2.) is has previously been learned to automaticity
3.) relevant retrieval cues are present
interconnections between 1,2,3 will increase the probability that information will be activated when sought
Retrieval is often a constructive process
- some information is directly retrieved, while other details are filled in to create a logical cohesive recollection
- recall of information can be affected by information or misinformation presented at a later time
- people can "remember" things that never happened due to drawing inferences from what they have learned, or related ideas in long-term memory were activated during an experience
Variety of explanations as to why people "forget" things
1.) decay
2.) interference
3.) failure to retrieve
4.) repression
5.) construction error
6.) failure to completely store or consolidate information
Infantile Amnesia - remembering little to nothing about what happens during first few years of life
Forgetting is not a bad thing - we have little need to remember everything about every day of our lives, and we rarely need to remember important information word for word
Ch.11 Developmental Perspectives on Cognition (3/17) Brett
Constructivism = Piaget - 4 stages of development
1) Sensorimotor Stage (birth to ~2yrs) - schemes (groups of things that children can do) entail perceptions and behaviors, understanding of world based on physical interactions with it
2) Preoperational Stage (2yrs - 6 or 7 yrs) schemes contain symbolic quality (thinking about things beyond immediate experience), reasoning about events
3) Concrete Operations Stage (6 or 7 - 11 or 12yrs) ability to reason in logical ways about concrete, real situations; realization that their own perspectives not necessarily shared by others
4) Formal Operations Stage (11 or 12 - adulthood) thinking about abstract situations and hypothetical ones; advanced reasoning in math and science
stages of development may differ from culture to culture based on necessity
=Ch.12 Meta cognition, Self-Regulated Learning, and Study Strategies (4/7) Cindy People's knowledge of their own learning and cognitive processes, as well as their regulation of those processes to enhance learning and memory, are collectively known as metacognition. Metacognitive Knowledge and Skills - Thinking about thinking
- Being aware of ones own learning and memory capabilities are and of what learning tasks can realistically be accomplished.
- Knowing which learning strategies are effective and which are not
- Planning an approach to a learning task that is likely to be successful
- Using effective learning strategies
- Monitoring one's present knowledge
- Knowing effective strategies for retrieval of previously stored information
The process of Metacognition is consistent with social cognitive theorists' notion of selfregulation: It provides the mechanism through which people begin to regulate ones aspect of their lives- their own learning.Self-Regulated Learning
Ch.13 Transfer and Problem Solving (4/7) Cindy
Ch.14 Social Processes in Knowledge Construction (4/7) Cindy
Ch.15 Motivation and Affect (4/14) Cindy
Ch.16 Cognitive Factors in Motivation (4/14)_Cindy